Chapter 9
Aggression and Violence in Sport

Crime Time Clock

What is Aggression

• Is aggressiveness something to be achieved or eliminated?
• Is aggression prosocial or antisocial, beneficial or harmful?

Folk Beliefs Linking Sport and Aggression

• Sport reduces aggressiveness
• Sport promotes aggressiveness

Defining Aggression

"Any form of behavior directed toward the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment." (Baron, 1977)

Criteria for Aggression

• Aggression is a behavior
• It involves harm or injury
• Is directed toward another living being (unwilling victim)
• It involves intent

Other Common Terms

• Violence
  all acts of physical aggression
• Intimidation
  verbal or physical behaviors that threaten violence
• Hostility
  opposition or resistance in thought or principle

Hostile versus Instrumental

• Reactive or Hostile Aggression (Antisocial)
  The primary goal is to inflict injury or psychological harm on another
• Instrumental Aggression (Prosocial)
  Aggression occurring in the quest of some nonaggressive goal

Instinct Theory

• Aggression is an innate biological drive
• Aggression results in a purging or venting of pent-up emotions
• Sports provide a safe and socially acceptable outlet for aggression

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

• Aggression is a natural consequence of frustration
• The strength of the tendency to agress is related to the strength, degree and number of frustrations
• Overt aggression may act as a catharsis or release against further aggression

Components of Social Learning

• Modeling or observational learning (learn by watching what other do and do not do)
• Reinforcement (being reinforced or penalized for one’s actions)
• Social Comparison (exhibiting behaviors in an effort to fit in with one’s peer or comparison group)

Social Learning Theory

• The need for aggression is a learned response
• Aggression begets further aggression
• Aggression does not serve as a vent or catharsis against further aggression

Revised Frustration-Aggression Theory

Sociological Explanations

• Contagion Theory
      --Builds through tension, uneasiness, excitement, fans, players
• Convergence Theory
      --Commonality of interests and goals
      --Proper arena/forum for such behavior, it is fueled by the sport or action

Sociological Explanations

The Emergent Norm Theory
      --Deals with a specific set of standards that emerge over time among spectators at                 specific sporting events and how the crowd/fans respond

--We have learned to react differently depending on what sport it is…

Example -- Golf vs. Hockey; Tennis vs. Football

Value-Added Theory

A Combination of First Three Theories

    1. Sports provide the proper environment

A. Become targets for physical and verbal attack

    2. Fans want to see action

    3. There will always be a reaction to:

A. Lack of excitement/action

B. Bad calls/officiating

C. Poor performances

D. Violence or dirty play

            4. Something takes control

        Fans, player leader, excitement of competition

force of action is at work

            5.Someone tries to take control

        Referee, coach, leaders, authority figure attempting to keep things              within reason

Contributes to the problem

Types of Aggression in Sport

• Spectator aggression
• Game reasoning and aggression
• Athletic performance and aggression

Spectator Aggression

Mann (1979) suggests 5 situational factors that together are conducive to the actual display of crowd violence

Large crowd

Dense crowd

Noisy crowd

Standing crowd

Crowd composition

Relationship between Temperature and Aggression

Sociological Considerations of Aggression

• Hooliganism
• The Media

Critical Sport-Related Situations Affecting Aggression

• Point Spread
• Home/Away Factor
• Outcome
• League Standing
• Period of Play

Violence in selected Sports

• Boxing
• Football
• Hockey

Increasing Levels of Violence

• Smith (1986) differentiates between four levels:
• Body contact
• Borderline Violence
• Quasi-criminal Violence
• Criminal Violence

Legal Perspectives

• Determine what degree of violence exceeds that which is natural and expected in a given sport
• Determine the jurisdiction
• Determine whether legal action would do any good

Recommendations for Dealing with Aggression

• Recognize when aggression is most likely to occur
• Keep winning in perspective
• Distinguish between aggression and assertive behavior
• Teach appropriate behavior
• Control aggression via stress management training

Recommendations for Curbing Violence in Sport

• Management
• The media
• Game officials
• Coaches
• Players

Management

• Abolish or Control the use of alcoholic beverages at sporting events
• Deal swiftly and firmly with acts of spectator aggression
• Make sports more of a family affair
• Monitor the behavior of coaches
• Monitor the behavior of players

The Media

• Do not glorify aggressive athletes in front of children
• Refrain from glamorizing violence
• Do not attempt to promote hostility

Game Officials

• Eliminate perceived officiating injustices
• Take part in workshops on aggression and violence in sport

Coaches

• Encourage athletes to engage in prosocial behavior
• Participate in workshops on aggression and violence

Players

• Ultimately the individual player must assume most of the responsibility for reducing aggressive behavior
• Each player should volunteer to take part in programs aimed at helping them cope with aggressive feelings and actions

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